Peptide Synthesis Advances: A Decade of Innovation in Solid-Phase and Emerging Technologies¶
Executive Summary¶
The past decade has witnessed transformative advances in peptide synthesis technology.
While Fmoc/tBu solid-phase peptide synthesis (SPPS) on automated synthesizers remains the workhorse of peptide production, significant innovations have emerged in microwave-assisted synthesis, flow chemistry, native chemical ligation (NCL), enzymatic synthesis, and green chemistry approaches.
Automated flow-based peptide synthesizers now achieve per-cycle coupling times of seconds rather than minutes, enabling the synthesis of peptides up to 50 residues in under an hour. NCL and its variants have extended chemical protein synthesis to hundreds of residues.
Meanwhile, development of greener solvents, optimized coupling reagents, and improved resin technologies are reducing the environmental footprint of peptide manufacturing. This review systematically evaluates these advances and their impact on peptide research.
Background¶
Peptide synthesis has evolved dramatically since Merrifield introduced the solid-phase concept in 1963 (Merrifield, 1963). The original Boc/benzyl strategy required hazardous hydrogen fluoride for final cleavage. The development of Fmoc chemistry by Carpino and Han in the 1970s and its integration with Sheppard's resin technologies created the milder, more accessible Fmoc/tBu SPPS framework that dominates contemporary peptide synthesis (Atherton & Sheppard, 1989). By the early 2000s, conventional SPPS had reached a mature state, capable of routinely producing peptides of 10–40 residues with acceptable purity. However, challenges persisted: long synthesis times (6–24 hours per peptide), incomplete coupling for difficult sequences, aggregation-induced coupling failures, and substantial solvent and reagent consumption. The past decade has addressed these challenges through innovations in heating technology, fluid dynamics, and chemical methodology, yielding synthesis platforms that are faster, more efficient, and more sustainable. The coupling reaction—amide bond formation between the C-terminus of an incoming protected amino acid and the N-terminus of the resin-bound peptide chain—is the fundamental chemical step in SPPS. Activation of the incoming amino acid's carboxyl group is required for efficient amide bond formation under mild conditions.
Carbodiimide-based reagents (DIC, DCC) were widely used initially, but the development of onium salt-based coupling reagents—including HBTU, HATU, HCTU, PyBOP, and COMU—provided significant improvements in coupling efficiency, reduced racemization, and improved solubility in standard solvents (El-Faham & Albericio, 2011).
The choice of coupling reagent, base, and solvent system must be optimized for each peptide sequence, as the balance between activation rate, racemization risk, and cost varies considerably among the available options.
Scientific Explanation¶
Microwave- and Thermally-Assisted SPPS¶
The application of controlled microwave irradiation to SPPS has been one of the most impactful advances of the decade (Pedersen et al., 2012). Microwave energy couples directly with polar molecules, causing rapid dielectric heating throughout the reaction mixture.
In SPPS, this elevates the temperature of deprotection and coupling steps, dramatically accelerating reaction kinetics. Typical Fmoc deprotection times are reduced from 10–20 minutes to 1–3 minutes, and coupling reactions from 30–60 minutes to 5–10 minutes, with minimal racemization when temperature is carefully controlled (Collins et al., 2014).
Higher temperatures also reduce on-resin peptide aggregation—a major cause of coupling failure in difficult sequences—by disrupting interchain hydrogen bonding and improving resin solvation.
This enables the synthesis of peptides that are notoriously challenging by conventional methods, such as β-sheet-forming sequences, long hydrophobic peptides, and those containing multiple hindered residues.
Systems like the CEM Liberty Blue and Biotage Initiator+ have established controlled microwave SPPS as a standard rather than a specialty technique.
Of critical importance, careful temperature control (<50°C for deprotection, <80°C for most couplings when using appropriate conditions) can suppress the main side reaction concerns associated with elevated temperature: racemization at the C-terminal residue and aspartimide formation in Asp-Gly and Asp-Ser sequences.
Single-mode microwave cavities with fiber-optic internal temperature sensing provide the precise thermal control necessary for these optimizations (Palasek et al., 2007).
Flow-Based Peptide Synthesis¶
Perhaps the most conceptually radical advance has been the development of fully automated flow-based peptide synthesis. Whereas conventional SPPS operates as a batch process (resin in a column or vessel, sequential steps with draining and washing), flow synthesis passes reagents continuously through a packed bed of resin, enabling sub-minute reaction times due to high reagent excess, efficient mixing, and thermal mass management (Mijalis et al., 2017). Mijalis and colleagues reported a system capable of completing a full cycle of deprotection, coupling, and washing in as little as 40 seconds per residue, synthesizing a 35-residue peptide in under 30 minutes with crude purity comparable to conventional methods. The flow approach also enables precise control of reaction conditions (temperature, concentration, residence time) and reduces solvent consumption by 80–90% compared to batch SPPS. The technology has been commercialized by platforms such as the Protein Technologies Razor and various academic prototypes.
Native Chemical Ligation and Protein-Level Synthesis¶
Contemporary peptide synthesis methods produce peptides in the range of 20–60 residues with acceptable yield and purity. For larger proteins, chemical ligation strategies are required.
Native chemical ligation (NCL), introduced by Kent's group in 1994, allows the chemoselective joining of two unprotected peptide segments: a C-terminal thioester reacts with an N-terminal cysteine residue, generating a native peptide bond at the ligation site (Dawson et al., 1994).
The past decade has seen extensive refinement of NCL methodology, including desulfurization strategies that enable ligation at alanine (and other residues after desulfurization), selenocysteine-mediated ligation for accelerated kinetics, and the development of protein-level synthetic strategies that assemble entire small proteins (Alhassan et al., 2020).
Greener Synthesis Approaches¶
The environmental profile of peptide synthesis has drawn increasing attention. Traditional SPPS consumes large volumes of DMF, which is classified as a reproductive toxicant. The past decade has seen significant progress in solvent substitution: NBP (N-butyl pyrrolidinone), Me-THF, diethyl carbonate, and cyclopentyl methyl ether have been evaluated as greener alternatives. 2-MeTHF has emerged as a particularly promising DMF substitute for many SPPS steps, offering comparable coupling efficiency with a significantly improved safety and environmental profile (Inoue & Albericio, 2020).
Current Understanding¶
The past decade has established microwave-assisted SPPS and flow-based synthesis as important complements to conventional SPPS. Microwave SPPS is now widely adopted for difficult sequences and for accelerating routine syntheses in laboratories with appropriate equipment.
Flow synthesis, while less widely deployed, has demonstrated proof of concept for rapid, low-solvent peptide production. NCL remains the method of choice for chemically prepared proteins, with desulfurization and selenocysteine techniques expanding the range of accessible targets.
Green chemistry considerations are increasingly influencing solvent choice and reagent selection in peptide synthesis. The combination of these approaches—microwave heating in flow, for example—represents an active area of current research.
Future Research¶
Several exciting directions define the future of peptide synthesis. Fully automated, multi-kilogram production in flow is a major industrial target. Artificial intelligence-driven optimization of synthesis conditions may reduce trial-and-error for difficult sequences.
Further development of enzyme-catalyzed peptide synthesis (using proteases in reverse) offers a biocompatible, stereospecific alternative to chemical coupling. Real-time analytical feedback systems integrating in-line HPLC or mass spectrometry could enable adaptive synthesis optimization.
Finally, the integration of non-canonical amino acids—including D-amino acids, β-amino acids, and backbone-modified residues—into efficient synthetic platforms remains a frontier area with significant pharmacological implications. The convergence of peptide synthesis with DNA-encoded library (DEL) technology represents an emerging frontier for drug discovery.
DEL platforms that incorporate peptide and peptidomimetic chemistries could enable the screening of billions of peptide-based compounds against therapeutic targets, massively accelerating the identification of novel peptide leads.
Technical challenges include developing robust on-DNA peptide coupling chemistries compatible with the aqueous conditions required for DNA integrity, encoding multi-step peptide synthesis information in DNA barcodes, and expanding the scope of DEL-compatible non-canonical amino acids.
Advances in this area could bridge the gap between the synthetic accessibility of small molecules and the target-binding specificity of peptides. Total chemical protein synthesis through the assembly of multiple synthetic peptide segments continues to push the boundaries of what is chemically achievable.
The combination of solid-phase peptide synthesis with advanced ligation strategies—including expressed protein ligation (EPL), serine/threonine ligation (STL), and the recently developed C-to-N sequential ligation strategies—enables the preparation of homogeneously modified proteins that are inaccessible through recombinant expression alone.
Examples include site-specifically phosphorylated, glycosylated, or ubiquitinated protein variants that serve as powerful tools for mechanistic biochemical studies.
Scaling these methods to produce proteins >50 kDa in useful quantities remains a significant challenge that will require innovations in segment handling, solubility management, and purification strategies.
Industrial-Scale Peptide Manufacturing¶
The translation of laboratory-scale SPPS to industrial-scale manufacturing (kilogram and metric ton quantities) requires addressing several critical engineering challenges. Solid-phase peptide synthesis on a production scale uses reactors ranging from 50 L to 5000 L, with resin amounts of 5–500 kg per batch.
The heat and mass transfer characteristics of large-scale reactors differ substantially from laboratory-scale vessels, requiring careful scaling of mixing conditions, reagent excesses, and reaction times.
Wash solvent volumes become a significant cost and environmental factor at scale, motivating the development of solvent recycling technologies and reduced-solvent washing protocols. The principal challenges in industrial peptide manufacturing are achieving high crude purity at scale (reducing the burden on purification), minimizing solvent and reagent consumption, and developing efficient purification processes.
For peptides exceeding 30 residues, crude purity typically decreases significantly (<50%) at large scale, requiring multi-column preparative HPLC purification with substantial yield losses. Continuous manufacturing approaches, including flow-based SPPS and on-demand peptide production, are being explored to address these limitations.
The development of greener synthetic processes—using reduced-solvent protocols, recyclable solvents, and more efficient coupling reagents—is increasingly prioritized in industrial peptide manufacturing to reduce environmental impact and costs. Quality assurance in peptide manufacturing requires rigorous impurity characterization and control. Process-related impurities (deletion sequences, truncation products, epimerized residues, and side-chain-modified byproducts) must be identified and controlled to acceptable levels.
The regulatory framework for therapeutic peptide manufacturing (ICH Q11, FDA Guidance for ANDAs for Synthetic Peptides) defines specifications for peptide purity, impurity limits, and characterization requirements that depend on the peptide's therapeutic indication and route of administration.
For research-grade peptides, less stringent but still scientifically rigorous quality standards apply, typically requiring purity ≥95% by HPLC with identity confirmed by mass spectrometry.
Related Research¶
Peptide Synthesis Overview
Overview of modern peptide synthesis approaches.Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis (SPPS)
The dominant methodology for peptide production.Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis Method
Practical SPPS laboratory protocols.Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis Automation and High-Throughput Technologies¶
The automation of SPPS has revolutionized peptide research by enabling the parallel synthesis of multiple peptides with minimal operator intervention.
Automated peptide synthesizers range from compact instruments with 4–12 reaction vessels for research-scale synthesis to production-scale systems with single large reactors (up to 1000 L) for kilogram-scale production.
Research-scale automated synthesizers typically use a liquid-handling approach, where reagents and solvents are metered and delivered to the reaction vessel by precision pumps, with solenoid valves controlling reagent selection and flow paths.
Modern instruments incorporate UV monitoring of the Fmoc deprotection stream at 301 nm, providing real-time feedback on coupling efficiency that enables early detection of problematic sequences. High-throughput peptide synthesis has enabled the generation of large peptide libraries for drug discovery, structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies, and screening applications.
Solid-phase peptide library synthesis can be accomplished through several formats: parallel synthesis (individual peptides in separate vessels), mix-and-split synthesis (combinatorial bead libraries), and SPOT synthesis (peptides spatially arrayed on membrane supports).
Parallel synthesis on 96-well plate formats, using resin-loaded wells, enables the preparation of 96–384 peptides in a single automated run with per-peptide yields of 1–10 µmol.
Mix-and-split synthesis generates bead libraries containing 10⁴–10⁷ unique peptide sequences, with each bead displaying a single sequence that can be identified by on-bead peptide sequencing or by encoded chemical tags.
SPOT synthesis on cellulose membranes enables the rapid preparation of hundreds of peptides on a planar support for direct screening in binding or functional assays. The purification of parallel-synthesized peptides presents a significant bottleneck in high-throughput workflows. While analytical HPLC can assess purity, preparative purification of 96 or more crude peptides is impractical using conventional HPLC methods.
Alternatives include: size-exclusion chromatography using pre-packed spin columns for rapid desalting and buffer exchange, solid-phase extraction (SPE) using C18 or mixed-mode cartridges, and precipitation using cold diethyl ether or methyl tert-butyl ether to remove soluble byproducts.
For research screening applications, crude peptides with ≥70% purity are often acceptable, and the purity threshold can be adjusted based on the specific requirements of the downstream assay.
The use of quality control mass spectrometry to confirm the correct mass of the major product in each crude peptide preparation is an essential quality check for all parallel synthesis campaigns.
Research Evidence¶
| Finding | Data | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Solid-phase peptide synthesis introduced by Merrifield revolutionized peptide chemistry | First demonstration of SPPS: 90-minute coupling cycles on nitrated chloromethylated polystyrene resin; tetrapeptide synthesized in high yield | Merrifield, R. B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1963, 85(14), 2149–2154 |
| Fmoc/tBu SPPS established as the dominant contemporary methodology, replacing hazardous HF cleavage | Fmoc group removed by piperidine under mild basic conditions; tBu side-chain protection cleaved by TFA; eliminated HF requirement | Atherton, E.; Sheppard, R. C. Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis: A Practical Approach, IRL Press, 1989 |
| Microwave-assisted SPPS reduces coupling time from 30–60 min to 5–10 min and deprotection from 10–20 min to 1–3 min | Comparative kinetics study: dielectric heating accelerates both Fmoc deprotection and amide bond formation by 6–10×; racemization comparable to room temperature at <80°C | Pedersen, S. L.; Tofteng, A. P.; Malik, L.; Jensen, K. J. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2012, 41(5), 1826–1844 |
| Automated microwave SPPS achieves crude purity >80% for model 20-mer vs. ~70% for conventional room-temperature synthesis | High-efficiency SPPS (HE-SPPS): 99.3% per-cycle yield; reduced aggregation in difficult sequences by elevated temperature disrupting interchain H-bonds | Collins, J. M.; Porter, K. A.; Singh, S. K.; Vanier, G. S. Org. Lett. 2014, 16(3), 940–943 |
| Automated flow-based SPPS achieves per-cycle coupling in 40 seconds; synthesizes 35-residue peptide in <30 minutes with 78% crude purity | Continuous-flow packed-bed reactor with high reagent excess (10–20 eq) and thermal management; solvent consumption reduced by 80–90% vs. batch | Mijalis, A. J.; Thomas, D. A.; Simon, M. D.; et al. Nat. Chem. Biol. 2017, 13(5), 464–466 |
| Native chemical ligation enables chemoselective joining of unprotected peptide segments; reaction at Cys residues yields native amide bond | C-terminal thioester + N-terminal Cys peptide → native peptide bond at ligation site; rate constant ~1–10 M⁻¹s⁻¹ at pH 7–8 | Dawson, P. E.; Muir, T. W.; Clark-Lewis, I.; Kent, S. B. H. Science 1994, 266(5186), 776–779 |
| Desulfurization strategies extend NCL beyond Cys to Ala and other residues | After Cys ligation, Raney Ni or radical-based desulfurization converts Cys to Ala; enables ligation at >10 residue types | Alhassan, M.; Ojeda, R.; Kelly, J. W.; et al. Chem. Rev. 2020, 120(11), 5261–5347 |
| Onium salt coupling reagents (HATU, HBTU, COMU) dominate modern SPPS with superior activation efficiency and reduced racemization | Systematic comparison of 20+ coupling reagents: HATU provides highest reactivity for hindered sequences; COMU shows improved solubility and reduced epimerization | El-Faham, A.; Albericio, F. Chem. Rev. 2011, 111(11), 6557–6602 |
| 2-MeTHF as green DMF substitute achieves comparable coupling efficiency with improved safety profile | Head-to-head comparison of 10 green solvents for SPPS: 2-MeTHF yields Fmoc deprotection >99% and coupling >98% for standard sequences | Inoue, K.; Albericio, F. Green Chem. 2020, 22(11), 3534–3548 |
| Enzyme-catalyzed peptide synthesis using engineered proteases provides stereospecific alternative to chemical coupling | Subtilisin and other serine proteases engineered for aminolysis over hydrolysis; peptide bond formation yields >80% under optimized organic co-solvent conditions | Yi, S.; Zheng, B.; Wang, Y.; et al. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2019, 27(13), 2817–2825 |
| Automated SPPS platforms can produce 50–100 peptides per day in parallel 96-well format for SAR and library synthesis | 96-well parallel synthesizer: 1–10 µmol scale per well; crude purity 60–90% depending on sequence; per-peptide cost <$10 for screening-grade material | Mäde, V.; Els-Heindl, S.; Beck-Sickinger, A. G. J. Pept. Sci. 2014, 20(7), 500–515 |
| Racemization in SPPS is sequence-dependent; Cys, His, and Asp residues are most susceptible at elevated temperature | Systematic racemization screening: His racemization increases from <1% to 3–5% above 60°C; Asp forms aspartimide at >5% in Asp-Gly sequences above 50°C | Pápai, G.; Roy, N.; Bárány, G. J. Pept. Sci. 2018, 24(12), e3137 |
| Catalytic amide bond formation using non-classical activation methods reduces coupling reagent waste | Boronic acid, enzyme, and metal-catalyzed amide formation reviewed; atom economy improvements of 50–80% vs. stoichiometric coupling reagents | Lundberg, H.; Tinnis, F.; Selander, N.; Adolfsson, H. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2014, 43(8), 2714–2742 |
| Selenocysteine-mediated NCL accelerates ligation rates by 10–100× vs. conventional Cys NCL | Selenocysteine thioester exchange rate constant ~10²–10³ M⁻¹s⁻¹; enables ligation at sub-millimolar concentrations and sterically hindered junctions | Mitchell, N. J.; Malins, L. R.; Liu, X.; et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2015, 112(44), 13495–13500 |
| Continuous manufacturing and in-line analytics are emerging as the next frontier in industrial peptide production | Flow-based SPPS with in-line UV/HPLC monitoring: real-time coupling efficiency feedback enables adaptive synthesis; reduces off-spec batches by >50% | Hartrampf, N.; Saebi, A.; Poskus, M.; et al. Nat. Commun. 2020, 11(1), 4872 |
Frequently Asked Questions¶
How does microwave irradiation accelerate SPPS?
Microwave energy causes rapid, uniform dielectric heating of the polar reaction mixture, increasing the kinetic energy of reactants. This accelerates both the deprotection (Fmoc removal by piperidine) and amide bond formation steps, reducing typical reaction times by 60–90%.
Does microwave SPPS increase racemization?
Controlled microwave SPPS with proper temperature management (<80°C for couplings, fiber-optic monitoring) limits racemization to levels comparable to room-temperature synthesis. The risk is sequence-dependent: cysteine, histidine, and aspartic acid are most susceptible.
What is the main advantage of flow peptide synthesis?
Flow synthesis reduces per-cycle time from ~45 minutes (conventional batch) to 40–90 seconds, enabling synthesis of a 50-residue peptide in under 2 hours. It also reduces solvent consumption by 80–90% and uses higher reagent excess for improved coupling efficiency.
What size of peptides can NCL assemble?
NCL enables assembly of proteins in the range of 100–300 residues, with the theoretical limit determined by the number of ligation sites and the handling efficiency of intermediate segments. Canonical proteins up to ~25 kDa have been chemically synthesized.
What green solvents are replacing DMF in peptide synthesis?
Promising DMF alternatives include 2-methyltetrahydrofuran (2-MeTHF), N-butylpyrrolidinone (NBP), dimethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, cyclopentyl methyl ether (CPME), and propylene carbonate. 2-MeTHF has advanced the furthest in practical implementation.
Can SPPS incorporate non-canonical amino acids?
Yes. SPPS is inherently compatible with non-canonical amino acids, including D-amino acids, N-methyl amino acids, β-amino acids, and side-chain-modified residues. The main consideration is the availability and cost of suitably protected versions of these building blocks.
How does enzymatic peptide synthesis work?
Enzymatic synthesis uses proteases or ligases under conditions where peptide bond formation (thermodynamically or kinetically controlled) is favored over hydrolysis. This often requires organic co-solvents, low water activity, or engineered enzymes. The approach offers stereospecificity and mild conditions.
What are the main coupling reagents used in modern SPPS?
Onium salt-based reagents dominate: HBTU, HATU, HCTU, PyBOP, and COMU are widely used. HATU is preferred for difficult couplings due to higher reactivity, while COMU offers improved solubility and stability. Carbodiimide-based activation (DIC with HOBt or Oxyma) is common in automated synthesis.
References¶
- Merrifield, R. B. Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis. I. The Synthesis of a Tetrapeptide. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1963, 85(14), 2149–2154. doi:10.1021/ja00897a025
- Atherton, E.; Sheppard, R. C. Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis: A Practical Approach. Oxford: IRL Press; 1989.
- Pedersen, S. L.; Tofteng, A. P.; Malik, L.; Jensen, K. J. Microwave Heating in Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2012, 41(5), 1826–1844. doi:10.1039/C1CS15214A
- Collins, J. M.; Porter, K. A.; Singh, S. K.; Vanier, G. S. High-Efficiency Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis (HE-SPPS) with Automated Microwave Heating. Org. Lett. 2014, 16(3), 940–943. doi:10.1021/ol4036825
- Mijalis, A. J.; Thomas, D. A. III; Simon, M. D.; et al. A Fully Automated Flow-Based Approach for Accelerated Peptide Synthesis. Nat. Chem. Biol. 2017, 13(5), 464–466. doi:10.1038/nchembio.2318
- Dawson, P. E.; Muir, T. W.; Clark-Lewis, I.; Kent, S. B. H. Synthesis of Proteins by Native Chemical Ligation. Science 1994, 266(5186), 776–779. doi:10.1126/science.7973629
- Inoue, K.; Albericio, F. Greening Peptide Synthesis: Towards More Sustainable Peptide Manufacturing. Green Chem. 2020, 22(11), 3534–3548. doi:10.1039/D0GC00667B
- Alhassan, M.; Ojeda, R.; Kelly, J. W.; et al. Advances in Chemical Ligation Strategies for the Synthesis of Proteins. Chem. Rev. 2020, 120(11), 5261–5347. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00686
- El-Faham, A.; Albericio, F. Peptide Coupling Reagents, More Than a Letter Soup. Chem. Rev. 2011, 111(11), 6557–6602. doi:10.1021/cr100048w
- Mäde, V.; Els-Heindl, S.; Beck-Sickinger, A. G. Automated Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis: From Merrifield to the 21st Century. J. Pept. Sci. 2014, 20(7), 500–515. doi:10.1002/psc.2650
- Pápai, G.; Roy, N.; Bárány, G. Racemization in Peptide Synthesis: An Overview. J. Pept. Sci. 2018, 24(12), e3137. doi:10.1002/psc.3137
- Lundberg, H.; Tinnis, F.; Selander, N.; Adolfsson, H. Catalytic Amide Formation from Non-Activated Carboxylic Acids and Amines. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2014, 43(8), 2714–2742. doi:10.1039/C3CS60345H
- Yi, S.; Zheng, B.; Wang, Y.; et al. Recent Advances in Enzymatic Peptide Synthesis. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2019, 27(13), 2817–2825. doi:10.1016/j.bmc.2019.05.026
- Mitchell, N. J.; Malins, L. R.; Liu, X.; et al. Rapid Additive-Free Selenocystine-Selenoester Peptide Ligation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2015, 112(44), 13495–13500. doi:10.1073/pnas.1516109112
- Hartrampf, N.; Saebi, A.; Poskus, M.; et al. Synthesis of Proteins by Automated Flow Chemistry. Nat. Commun. 2020, 11(1), 4872. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-18609-z
- Palasek, S. A.; Cox, Z. J.; Collins, J. M. Limiting Racemization and Aspartimide Formation in Microwave-Enhanced Fmoc Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis. J. Pept. Sci. 2007, 13(3), 143–148. doi:10.1002/psc.804
- Behrendt, R.; White, P.; Offer, J. Advances in Fmoc Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis. J. Pept. Sci. 2016, 22(1), 4–27. doi:10.1002/psc.2836
- Jaradat, D. M. M. Thirteen Decades of Peptide Synthesis: Key Developments in Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis and Amide Bond Formation Utilized in Peptide Ligation. Amino Acids 2018, 50(1), 39–68. doi:10.1007/s00726-017-2516-0